Adult and Community Educators

 Adult and Community Educators in Formal Education
M. Rose Hobby, David Jones, Jillian Saunders, Linda Simmons, Nic Spangle, and Wayne Tozzi
Ball State University

Group Members
Roles
Commented On:
M. Rose Hobby
Set up blog, combined information from group members to create document, wrote introduction
Group One
David Jones
Summary table, offered feedback on rough draft

Jillian Saunders
Group plan, research Dewey, offered feedback on rough draft

Linda Simmons
Research Dewey, offered feedback on rough draft

Nic Spangle
Research Knowles, offered feedback on rough draft
Group One
Wayne Tozzi
Set up google doc, research Knowles, offered feedback on rough draft
Group three



Adult and Community Educators in Formal Education
            Many influential educators have laid a framework to help adult learners succeed in formal education. Two of these educational pioneers are John Dewey and Malcolm Knowles. Many of Dewey’s philosophical sentiments from years ago are echoed in adult education today and still relevant within the field. Malcolm Knowles has provided great guidance and knowledge into the adult learner and how to best facilitate their learning. Adult education would not be where it is today without the influence of either individual.
John Dewey
Background of John Dewey
John Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in the state of Vermont. Dewey died on June 1, 1982 (Gouinlock, 2010). Dewey was an active philosopher, educator, and experimentalist from 1884-1930 (“John Dewey”, 2014).
Dewey is an interesting educator in regards to formal adult education because of his work in experiential learning and experience as a professor in higher education. Though Dewey was most active before there was a major push for direct attention on adult education, much of his work is reverberated in concepts surrounding the profession. “Dewey’s philosophical pragmatism, concern with interaction, reflection and experience, and interest in community and democracy, were brought together to form a highly suggestive educative form. John Dewey is often misrepresented – and wrongly associated with child-centred education” (Smith, 2001, para 1).
Profile of Dewey’s Religion as the Basis for His Philosophy of Education
Dewey developed an interest in philosophy while attending the University of Vermont for his baccalaureate degree (“John Dewey”, 2014). He trained at Johns Hopkins University for his doctorate in philosophy in the 1880s under G. Stanley Hall. Dewey became a disciple of Thomas Huxley, an avowed atheist, humanist, and evolutionist (Marcy, 2013). Dewey’s religion of humanism, which was the foundation for his philosophy of education, included rejection of the supernatural, the eternal, divine authority, and absolute truth (Gangel & Benson, 1983). Dewey believed in the evolution of the universe without divine origin or intervention and adherence to the inherent goodness of man (Marcy, 2013).
As was the case with his predecessor Horace Mann, Dewey recognized the most effective way to change society was to influence the education of the young (Marcy, 2013). Even though labeled a pragmatist, Dewey was actually a visionary whose goal was to take education out of the hands of the church where it had largely rested since the founding of this country and place it in the hands of the public where materialistic science, unrecognized as religious in nature, could be elevated as the cure for society’s ills (Gangel & Benson, 1983).
Personally, Dewey married Harriet Alice Chipman, whom he met while teaching at the University of Michigan, in 1886. The two had six biological children and one adopted child. After his wife’s death, he married Roberta Grant at the age of 87 (“John Dewey”, 2014).
Tenets and Application of Dewey’s Philosophy of Education
John Dewey’s “Progressive Education” promoted the development of the individual’s intellectual, moral, and aesthetic capabilities through experiential learning within social contexts rather than through the impartation of a succession of core curriculum and discipline from an authority figure (Dupuis, 1966; Gangel & Benson, 1983). The elements of experiential learning included: non-competitive and respectful social interaction among the teacher and learners, motivation through interest, and the instructor as facilitator of learning (Dupuis, 1966). Critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, experimentation, hands-on activities, and experiences in nature were all integral components of Dewey’s educational model (Mayer, 1960). Additionally, learning experiences which build positively on previous knowledge, with implications of future experiences would be likewise productive (Gangel & Benson, 1983).
In spite of his rejection of biblical authority, Dewey incorporated many biblical principles into his educational theory. These included: learning by experiencing (Hebrews 5:14, James 1:22 New American Standard Bible), man as a social being (Ephesians 4:15-16), the value of the study of nature (Romans 1:20, Psalm 19:1), the rejection of competition (I Corinthians 3:1-4), creative thinking and problem solving (Genesis 1:26, Exodus 28:2-3), motivation through interest (Exodus 3:1-3, Matthew 5:6), dialog in the learning process (Genesis 18:17-33), and concern for the individual (Psalm 139:1-16, Luke 15).
In 1896 Dewey established the primary-level Laboratory School of the University of Chicago, a pilot project designed to showcase progressive education. His “educational ideal did not meet the harsh realities of teaching and learning” (Knoll, 2015, p. 252), however. It seems incongruous that, in light of Dewey’s emphasis on the importance of gaining social maturity, the failing school closed in 1904 due to his and his wife Alice’s social and administrative incompetence (Knoll, 2015).
Dewey’s Contributions
John Dewey became the most influential educator of the 20th century, virtually revolutionizing formal educational philosophy through setting up an intellectual aristocracy with superior education and training (Thut, 1957).  Dewey hoped his efforts would guide the evolution of our society (Wilds, 1942). After joining the faculty of the Teachers College of Columbia University in 1904, Dewey, along with Dean James Earl Russell, led it to become the largest institution in the world for training teachers by 1930. By 1953, one third of all presidents and deans of teacher colleges in America were graduates of Columbia University (Marcy, 2013). In addition to his teaching duties, Dewey was a prolific writer and speaker (Meyer, 1972). His most influential book, Democracy and Education, was published in 1916. Dewey also helped to found the Progressive Education Association, the National Education Association, the American Civil Liberties Union, and the New York Teachers Union. Additionally, Dewey was an original signer of the Humanist Manifesto in 1933 (Marcy, 2013).
Impact of Dewey’s Work
Dewey’s impact on adult education arose through the acceptance of his philosophy of education at all levels, his extensive teacher training program at the university level, and the broadening of formal education venues due to his emphasis on experiential learning. Learning by experience rather than by mental exercise alone has become a vital component of much adult formal education, including vocational training in the lab and field, and trips to museums, parks, and other sites which engage the physical senses, provide new social interactions, and stimulate critical thinking skills (Monk, 2013).
As a developing institution, American formal education a century ago needed new insights into the process of learning which John Dewey provided through his progressive philosophy of education.  All the while, he also discarded the structure of Christian values that had undergirded the American educational system for centuries and substituted a set of humanistic values, thus opening the door to extremes which have undermined its effectiveness. These deleterious effects include disrespect for authority, disdain for foundational knowledge that can only be learned by memorization and drill, e.g. math facts and phonics; and fallacious logic based on changeable science rather than on absolutes (Clark, 1960).
Malcolm Knowles
Background History of Knowles
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles was born on August 24, 1913 and passed on November 27, 1997. Knowles first became active in adult education when he accepted a position as the Director of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA in 1940. After being drafted into the Navy during WWII, he wrote prolifically on adult learning and the adult learner from 1950-1986. Knowles remained active in adult education well into the 1990s after his retirement (“Malcolm Knowles”, 2004).
Knowles is sometimes referred to as the father of adult education.  While Knowles completed his master's degree program, his interest became adult education. This period in his life led Knowles to understand the meaning of becoming a facilitator rather than a teacher (Smith, 2002). Knowles is of interest in the arena of formalized adult education because of his singular and groundbreaking work with the concept of andragogy. Andragogy is the science and art of catering learning practices specifically to adults rather than utilizing concepts designed for children. Knowles defined the field of adult education, gaining the attention of many who otherwise would not have noticed, while building theories to further legitimize adult education as an important area of interest (Henschke, 1997).
Profile
            Knowles received his baccalaureate degree in history from Harvard University in 1934. Next, he completed a graduate degree in 1949 and a doctorate in adult education in 1960. He received both degrees from the University of Chicago (By, 1997). In addition to his military career as an officer and work as an adult educator, Knowles served as director of the Adult Education Association from 1951-1959 and was a consultant to the Democratic National Committee from 1956-1960 (“Malcolm Shepherd Knowles”, 2003). Knowles worked in the formal education field as a professor at Boston University from 1960-1974. He then left Boston University to assume a professorship at Carolina State University from 1974-1979. Even after retirement, Knowles still taught in formalized education at the Fielding Institute and the University of Arkansas (By, 1997).
            Personally, Knowles was married for 62 years to Hulda Fornell Knowles. The couple met while studying at Harvard University (“Malcolm Knowles”, 2016).  Together, they had a son, Eric, and daughter, Barbara (“Malcolm Shepherd Knowles”, 2003).
Perspective of Knowles
Sopher (2003) identified four major educational influences on Knowles: The humanistic adult education movement, the human services movement, the group dynamic movement and the resource development movement.  Knowles’ humanist influence can be seen in his characteristics of adult learning. Knowles believed the focus on adult education was informal.  He saw a distinction between formal education and informal education. Knowles was quoted to write “Formal programs are those sponsored for the most part by established education institutions, such as universities, high school, and trade schools” (as cited in Smith, 2002, para 13); whereas, informal education is based out of community centers or industries and are more friendly and flexible.
One complaint Knowles had of formal education was he felt the administration of universities focused on becoming more efficient and not providing the most education at the lowest cost.  This concept loses sight of education designed to be for all the people.  Informal education tied more into Knowles meaning of Andragogy which means the science of helping adults learn (Caruth, 2014).

Knowles’ Contributions
            Knowles’ extensive career lead to the publication of numerous written works, including books, texts, and journal articles. Some of his publications include: Informal Adult Education (1950), How to Develop Better Leaders (1955), The Adult Education Movement in the United States (1962), Higher Adult Education in the United States (1969), The Dynamics of Leadership Series (1962), History of Adult Education in the United States (1972), Lifelong Learning: A Guide for Teachers and Learners (1975), Self-Directed Learning (1975), The Modern Practice of Adult Education: Andragogy vs. Pedagogy (1980), Andragogy in Action (1984), and Using Learning Contracts (1986). Knowles also co-authored several publications. Perhaps his most influential book, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species was issued in a third edition in 1984 (“Malcolm Knowles”, 2004).
Impact of Knowles’ Work
            Knowles, a tireless pioneer and advocate of adult education, developed the andragogy as a means of distinguishing the differences between childhood and adult learners. To Knowles, adult education was based on these differences and characteristics of the adult learner (Caruth, 2014). His work was very influential to the cause in the twentieth century. The reach of his impact can only be briefly summarized in this document. He created the first comprehensive adult education program at the YMCA in Boston. He founded the Adult Education Association of the USA. All his contributions directly or indirectly promote the idea of lifelong learning (Weingand, 1998).
            As previously mentioned, Knowles developed the concept of andragogy. In Greek translation, andragogy means teaching adults. Conversely, pedagogy means to teach children. The model Knowles created implies adults learn differently than youth and consequently, need to be taught differently (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). Andragogy focuses on hands-on learning, problem solving, and informal learning formats rather than a structured curriculum (“Malcolm Knowles”, 2016). Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (2005) surmised several characteristics of adult learners:
·         Adult learners need to know why they need to learn before attempting to learn it.
·         Adults are accountable for their own decision-making.
·         Adults are capable of self-direction.
·         Life experiences provide context to learning.
·         Adults have a readiness to learn what they need to know in order to be effective in real-life situations.
·         Adults prefer life centered-learning over subject-centered learning.
Additionally, Knowles formulated guidelines for developing a competency-based graduate program for training adult educators and human resources developers (Sopher, 2003). These guidelines were intended to help with a new graduate program in adult education.  Competency based education has increased in popularity in the last couple of decades.
Implications
            The works of both Dewey and Knowles provide educators a framework to utilize today. Implications for practice can be drawn from both educators and several implications from Dewey are reflected by Knowles, strengthening the argument that the insinuations of each educator are sound.
Though Dewey was active in education many years ago, many of his viewpoints are practical within adult education today. Experiential learning has been adopted as a common teaching method within formal education, especially career and technical paths in which practical experience is a requirement for workforce entry. Exposing learners to new social interactions engages the senses and yields an invigorating educational experience. The idea one can build upon previous knowledge and understand effects of future experiences is a central idea in adult education.
The work of Knowles has largely informed our practical work as it is arguably the basis of adult education by differentiating between pedagogy vs. andragogy. His work also demonstrated that adult learners learn differently and have different impetuses for gaining knowledge than children do. Harnessing that information allows practitioners to better educate adult learners. The idea of andragogy gave voice to the adult learner.
Both Dewey and Knowles noted the importance of teaching adults in a learner-centered environment, in which the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than one who holds all of the power. Knowles described characteristics of adult learners, some of which were also mentioned by Dewey, and methods to appeal to this specific population. For example, if a facilitator can incorporate hands-on learning and the utilization of problem-solving skills into curriculum (rather than merely reading or lecturing over a concept), this method will most likely provide a more enriching learning experience to an adult learner because he or she can experience the subject, draw inferences upon the experience, and determine the applicability of the material to their personal agenda.
Table 1. Summary of Adult Educators

John Dewey
Malcolm Knowles
Time Period
1884-1930
1950-1986
Background
Born on October 20, 1859, John Dewey was a prolific philosopher, educator, and educational experimentalist. Dewey explored and embraced the concept of furthering adult education before it was en-vogue, and is considered a pioneer in the field.
Born on August 24, 1913, Malcolm Knowles was an active voice in the development of accepted practices within adult education. Knowles’ work in the area of andragogy serves as the foundation for modern adult education development. 
Profile
Developing an interest in philosophy early on in his educational career, Dewey went on to pursue a doctorate in philosophy, and became closely associated with Thomas Huxley, a fellow humanist. Dewey believed that human kind had an inherent goodness, and the best way to shape society was to influence the education of the young. Dewey’s work was squarely focused on the removal of church practices from higher education, which was a revolutionary notion in his time.
After completing his bachelor’s degree in 1934, Knowles was drafter to the navy, and served as an officer for the duration of WWII. After returning from the war, Knowles receives his graduate degree in 1949, and his doctorate in adult education in 1960. Knowles served as a professor between 1960-1979.
Perspectives
Dewey promoted the development of individual capabilities through the application of experiential learning. The core tenants of Dewey’s experiential learning were critical thinking and problem solving. 
Influencing factors on Knowles’ view on education were the humanistic adult education movement, the human services movement, the group dynamic movement, and the resource development movement. Knowles recognized a clear distinction between formal and informal education, and these influences had a profound impact on the development of Knowles’ theories.
Contributions
Dewey turned the accepted formal education paradigm on its ear, and has been said to have been one of the most influential educators of the 20th century. Dewey helped grow the Teacher’s College of Columbia University, helped found the Progressive Education Association among other well-known organizations within the higher education community.
Knowles’ extensive experience and career lead him to publish numerous journal articles and textbooks. These written works have become a vital tool in the adult educators toolkit.

Impact
Dewey’s work shaped the face of higher education that we recognize today. He fostered the teacher education movement, which is alive and well to this day. His focus on experiential learning has become a cornerstone of adult education.
Knowles’ contributions to the field of adult education served to completely transform the way in which it was approached and administered. With the development of andragogy, he firmly established that the development of adult education mechanisms is a science unto itself, and as such, it should not be viewed as an off-shoot of traditional higher education programs.
Implications
Dewey’s work was far ahead of his time, and his theories of experiential learning and education development are still in practice to this day.
Knowles lead the charge in the effort to prove that adult education was truly unique into and of itself. His theory of andragogy has completely altered the way in which modern educators approach and develop adult education curriculum.
                                                           
                                                                  References
By, W. S. (1997, Dec 06). M.S. Knowles, 84, adult education pioneer. The New York
Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com
Clark, G. H. (1960). Dewey. Philadelphia: Presbyterian and Reformed.
Caruth, G. D. (2014). Meeting the Needs of Older Students in Higher Education.
Participatory Educational Research, 1(2), 21-35. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED552755)
Dupuis, A. M. (1966). Philosophy of education in historical perspective. Chicago:
Rand McNally & Co.
Gangel, K. O. & Benson, W. S. (1983). Christian education: Its history and
philosophy. Chicago: Moody Press.
Gouinlock, J. S. (2010). John Dewey. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from:
            https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey
Henschke, J. (1997). In memoriam: Malcolm S. Knowles. Adult Learning, 9(2), 2.
John Dewey Biography. (2014). Retrieved from:
http://www.biography.com/people/john-dewey-9273497
Knoll, M. (2015). John Dewey as administrator: the inglorious end of the 
            Laboratory School in Chicago. Journal of Curriculum Studies,
            47(2), 203-252.
Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The adult learner: The
definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (6 ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Malcolm Knowles. (2016). Biography Reference Bank (Bio Ref Bank).
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles. (2003). In Contemporary Authors Online. Retrieved
from:http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/H1000055110/BIC1?u=fairfax_main&xid=506a7a36
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles. (2004). In Encyclopedia of World Biography (2nd ed,
Vol. 9, pp. 62-64). Detroit: Gale. 
Marcy, M. (2013). The emperors who had no clothes. Portland, OR: Create Space
Publishing.
Mayer, F. (1960). A history of educational thought. Columbus, OH: Charles E 
            Merrill Books.
Meyer, A. E. (1972). An educational history of the Western world (2nd ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Monk, D. F. (2013). John Dewey and adult learning in museums
              Retrieved from: www.sagepub.com.
Rose, A.D. (1991).  Ends or means:  An overview of the history of the Adult 
              Education Act. (ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, & Vocational
              Education). Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED341875)
Smith, M. K. (2001). John Dewey on education, experience, and community.
Retrieved from: http://infed.org/mobi/john-dewey-on-education-experience-and-community/
Smith, M.K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education, self-direction 
            and andragogy. Retrieved from: http://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-
             knowles-informal- adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/
Sopher, M. J. (2003). An historical biography of Malcolm S. Knowles: The
            re-making of an adult educator. Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin.
Thut, I. N. (1957). The story of education: Philosophical and historical
             foundationsNew York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Weingland, D. E. (1998). Malcolm Shepherd Knowles. Training & Development,
52(2), 11.
Wilds, E. H. (1942). The foundations of modern education: Historical and
philosophical backgrounds for the interpretation of present-day educational
issues. New York: Rinehart and Co.

13 comments:

  1. Does anyone have any recommendations for the formatting on the blogger? It seems there must be a better way than transferring from Word to the blogger and then toggling from the publishing page to the preview to try to correct reference formatting. I changed the right margin on the Word doc to 1.75" and this helped some of the formatting on the final doc, but I still had to go in and correct errors.

    Thanks!

    Rose

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  2. Rose this looks amazing, thank you!!

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  3. Thank you, Rose, for all your work (and expertise). It looks great!

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  4. Great Job Group 4!
    I've studied the theories of Knowles in previous classes. It was interesting to learn a bit more about the man.

    I found the section on Dewey fascinating. Now I want to research him further. I'm curious about your connections of his theories to biblical passages. Did you all make those connections based on your interpretation of the theories and passages or did Dewey make the connection?

    Kim

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    Replies
    1. 'm curious about your connections of his theories to biblical passages. Did you all make those connections based on your interpretation of the theories and passages or did Dewey make the connection?

      --- These are the questions I want to know too!!

      Bo

      Delete
  5. This is an impressive paper. Well done. Dewey talked about the evolution of education, based largely in his earlier studies. Knowles talked about adult education and the ways to best reach an adult audience. To combine these two educators, my question is what are the evolutionary trends in adult education today?

    Much in the world has changed since the time of Knowles, let alone the time of Dewey. The world is more connected, leading to a faster pace and a more efficient flow of ideas. This is an important facet of education today that has led to things like this very class being online. I think the work of adult educators today is to connect and engage learners through these improved pathways while still maintaining quality experiences, may of which can be lost through an online setting. Anyone have other thoughts?

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  6. Very good paper! I found it interesting that we both have done research on Dewey. One of the most interesting things I found with Dewey, was his realization on experimental learning. I loved reading and learning more about this process. I enjoyed reading your information about Knowles and andragogy. Life long learning is very important with all the changes our world experiences.

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  7. I enjoyed reading this paper. I loved reading and learning more about these two iconic educators. I think anyone that knows anything about education has heard of these two, but the paper went into depth about them and their practices and provided new information to me. I especially liked how it was stated that Dewey did not focus primarily on children education, which many people often confuse. I can personally relate to Knowles' views on informal and formal education especially the view of schools not focusing on giving the best education at the lowest price.

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  8. Commented on both Group 2 and 3 papers

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  9. What a fantastic paper you have created here! I found that the way you summarized each educator to be quite comprehensive and yet not overly detailed to the point of being too long for the reader to absorb all the information. I found myself pulling out the relevant contributions of each educator to the field of adult education specifically, and appreciate the review of such.

    I had not realized previously that Dewey was sometimes associated with Children's education; I guess I had always thought of him as an adult educator. I also found the review of Knowles role in the creation of the adrogogy vs. pedagogy to be very important.

    Take care,
    Alexandra

    P.S. You have also created a very nice summary table :-)

    ReplyDelete
  10. What a fantastic paper you have created here! I found that the way you summarized each educator to be quite comprehensive and yet not overly detailed to the point of being too long for the reader to absorb all the information.

    P.S. You have also created a very nice summary table :-)

    --- Totally agree with what you said!

    Bo

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  11. Rose, David, Jillian, Linda, Nic, and Wayne,

    What a fantastic paper you wrote! I was so excited while I read your paper! Your paper is so precise, yet rich, focused and interesting! Each part of the paper, including you summary table, is well written! It has both “bones and meat”! Your summary table is excellent! It highlighted the most important ideas in each part of your paper!

    Your group is the largest group in this class, yet your paper is so cohesive, which is amazing! Great collaboration!

    I especially like the followings:

    The elements of experiential learning included…

    In spite of his rejection of biblical authority, Dewey incorporated many biblical principles into his educational theory….

    Sopher (2003) identified four major educational influences on Knowles: The humanistic adult education movement, the human services movement, the group dynamic movement and the resource development movement.

    I also like that you listed the publications of these educators, which is informative for readers who are not familiar with their work.

    Check the APA format. For example:

    Malcolm Shepherd Knowles. (2004). In Encyclopedia of World Biography (2nd ed, Vol. 9, pp. 62-64). Detroit: Gale.

    By, W. S. (1997, Dec 06). M.S. Knowles, 84, adult education pioneer. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com

    Caruth, G. D. (2014). Meeting the Needs of Older Students in Higher Education.Participatory Educational Research, 1(2), 21-35. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED552755)

    Bo

    ReplyDelete