Adult and Community Educators in Formal
Education
M.
Rose Hobby, David Jones, Jillian Saunders, Linda Simmons, Nic Spangle, and
Wayne Tozzi
Ball
State University
Group Members
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Roles
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Commented On:
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M.
Rose Hobby
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Set
up blog, combined information from group members to create document, wrote
introduction
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Group One
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David
Jones
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Summary
table, offered feedback on rough draft
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Jillian
Saunders
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Group
plan, research Dewey, offered feedback on rough draft
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Linda
Simmons
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Research
Dewey, offered feedback on rough draft
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Nic
Spangle
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Research
Knowles, offered feedback on rough draft
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Group One
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Wayne
Tozzi
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Set
up google doc, research Knowles, offered feedback on rough draft
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Group three
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Adult
and Community Educators in Formal Education
Many influential educators have laid a framework to help
adult learners succeed in formal education. Two of these educational pioneers
are John Dewey and Malcolm Knowles. Many of Dewey’s philosophical sentiments
from years ago are echoed in adult education today and still relevant within
the field. Malcolm Knowles has provided great guidance and knowledge into the
adult learner and how to best facilitate their learning. Adult education would
not be where it is today without the influence of either individual.
John Dewey
Background of John Dewey
John
Dewey was born on October 20, 1859 in the state of Vermont. Dewey died on June
1, 1982 (Gouinlock, 2010). Dewey was an active philosopher, educator, and
experimentalist from 1884-1930 (“John Dewey”, 2014).
Dewey is
an interesting educator in regards to formal adult education because of his work
in experiential learning and experience as a professor in higher education.
Though Dewey was most active before there was a major push for direct attention
on adult education, much of his work is reverberated in concepts surrounding the
profession. “Dewey’s philosophical pragmatism, concern with interaction,
reflection and experience, and interest in community and democracy, were
brought together to form a highly suggestive educative form. John Dewey is
often misrepresented – and wrongly associated with child-centred education”
(Smith, 2001, para 1).
Profile of Dewey’s Religion as the Basis for His Philosophy
of Education
Dewey
developed an interest in philosophy while attending the University of Vermont
for his baccalaureate degree (“John Dewey”, 2014). He trained at Johns Hopkins
University for his doctorate in philosophy in the 1880s under G. Stanley Hall.
Dewey became a disciple of Thomas Huxley, an avowed atheist, humanist, and
evolutionist (Marcy, 2013). Dewey’s religion of humanism, which was the
foundation for his philosophy of education, included rejection of the
supernatural, the eternal, divine authority, and absolute truth (Gangel &
Benson, 1983). Dewey believed in the evolution of the universe without divine
origin or intervention and adherence to the inherent goodness of man (Marcy,
2013).
As was
the case with his predecessor Horace Mann, Dewey recognized the most effective
way to change society was to influence the education of the young (Marcy,
2013). Even though labeled a pragmatist, Dewey was actually a visionary whose
goal was to take education out of the hands of the church where it had largely
rested since the founding of this country and place it in the hands of the
public where materialistic science, unrecognized as religious in nature, could
be elevated as the cure for society’s ills (Gangel & Benson, 1983).
Personally,
Dewey married Harriet Alice Chipman, whom he met while teaching at the
University of Michigan, in 1886. The two had six biological children and one
adopted child. After his wife’s death, he married Roberta Grant at the age of
87 (“John Dewey”, 2014).
Tenets and Application of Dewey’s Philosophy of Education
John
Dewey’s “Progressive Education” promoted the development of the individual’s
intellectual, moral, and aesthetic capabilities through experiential learning
within social contexts rather than through the impartation of a succession of
core curriculum and discipline from an authority figure (Dupuis, 1966; Gangel
& Benson, 1983). The elements of experiential learning included:
non-competitive and respectful social interaction among the teacher and
learners, motivation through interest, and the instructor as facilitator of
learning (Dupuis, 1966). Critical thinking, problem solving, creativity,
experimentation, hands-on activities, and experiences in nature were all
integral components of Dewey’s educational model (Mayer, 1960). Additionally,
learning experiences which build positively on previous knowledge, with
implications of future experiences would be likewise productive (Gangel &
Benson, 1983).
In spite
of his rejection of biblical authority, Dewey incorporated many biblical
principles into his educational theory. These included: learning by
experiencing (Hebrews 5:14, James 1:22 New American Standard Bible), man as a
social being (Ephesians 4:15-16), the value of the study of nature (Romans
1:20, Psalm 19:1), the rejection of competition (I Corinthians 3:1-4), creative
thinking and problem solving (Genesis 1:26, Exodus 28:2-3), motivation through
interest (Exodus 3:1-3, Matthew 5:6), dialog in the learning process (Genesis
18:17-33), and concern for the individual (Psalm 139:1-16, Luke 15).
In 1896
Dewey established the primary-level Laboratory School of the University of
Chicago, a pilot project designed to showcase progressive education. His
“educational ideal did not meet the harsh realities of teaching and learning”
(Knoll, 2015, p. 252), however. It seems incongruous that, in light of Dewey’s
emphasis on the importance of gaining social maturity, the failing school
closed in 1904 due to his and his wife Alice’s social and administrative
incompetence (Knoll, 2015).
Dewey’s Contributions
John
Dewey became the most influential educator of the 20th century, virtually
revolutionizing formal educational philosophy through setting up an
intellectual aristocracy with superior education and training (Thut, 1957). Dewey hoped his efforts would guide the
evolution of our society (Wilds, 1942). After joining the faculty of the
Teachers College of Columbia University in 1904, Dewey, along with Dean James
Earl Russell, led it to become the largest institution in the world for
training teachers by 1930. By 1953, one third of all presidents and deans of
teacher colleges in America were graduates of Columbia University (Marcy,
2013). In addition to his teaching duties, Dewey was a prolific writer and
speaker (Meyer, 1972). His most influential book, Democracy and Education, was published in 1916. Dewey also helped
to found the Progressive Education Association, the National Education
Association, the American Civil Liberties Union, and the New York Teachers
Union. Additionally, Dewey was an original signer of the Humanist Manifesto in
1933 (Marcy, 2013).
Impact of Dewey’s Work
Dewey’s
impact on adult education arose through the acceptance of his philosophy of
education at all levels, his extensive teacher training program at the
university level, and the broadening of formal education venues due to his
emphasis on experiential learning. Learning by experience rather than by mental
exercise alone has become a vital component of much adult formal education,
including vocational training in the lab and field, and trips to museums,
parks, and other sites which engage the physical senses, provide new social
interactions, and stimulate critical thinking skills (Monk, 2013).
As a
developing institution, American formal education a century ago needed new
insights into the process of learning which John Dewey provided through his
progressive philosophy of education. All
the while, he also discarded the structure of Christian values that had
undergirded the American educational system for centuries and substituted a set
of humanistic values, thus opening the door to extremes which have undermined
its effectiveness. These deleterious effects include disrespect for authority,
disdain for foundational knowledge that can only be learned by memorization and
drill, e.g. math facts and phonics; and fallacious logic based on changeable
science rather than on absolutes (Clark, 1960).
Malcolm Knowles
Background
History of Knowles
Malcolm
Shepherd Knowles was born on August 24, 1913 and passed on November 27, 1997.
Knowles first became active in adult education when he accepted a position as
the Director of Adult Education at the Boston YMCA in 1940. After being drafted
into the Navy during WWII, he wrote prolifically on adult learning and the
adult learner from 1950-1986. Knowles remained active in adult education well
into the 1990s after his retirement (“Malcolm Knowles”, 2004).
Knowles
is sometimes referred to as the father of adult education. While Knowles
completed his master's degree program, his interest became adult education.
This period in his life led Knowles to understand the meaning of becoming a
facilitator rather than a teacher (Smith, 2002). Knowles is of interest in the
arena of formalized adult education because of his singular and groundbreaking
work with the concept of andragogy. Andragogy is the science and art of
catering learning practices specifically to adults rather than utilizing
concepts designed for children. Knowles defined the field of adult education,
gaining the attention of many who otherwise would not have noticed, while
building theories to further legitimize adult education as an important area of
interest (Henschke, 1997).
Profile
Knowles received his baccalaureate degree in history from
Harvard University in 1934. Next, he completed a graduate degree in 1949 and a
doctorate in adult education in 1960. He received both degrees from the
University of Chicago (By, 1997). In addition to his military career as an
officer and work as an adult educator, Knowles served as director of the Adult
Education Association from 1951-1959 and was a consultant to the Democratic
National Committee from 1956-1960 (“Malcolm Shepherd Knowles”, 2003). Knowles
worked in the formal education field as a professor at Boston University from
1960-1974. He then left Boston University to assume a professorship at Carolina
State University from 1974-1979. Even after retirement, Knowles still taught in
formalized education at the Fielding Institute and the University of Arkansas
(By, 1997).
Personally, Knowles was married for 62 years to Hulda
Fornell Knowles. The couple met while studying at Harvard University (“Malcolm
Knowles”, 2016). Together, they had a
son, Eric, and daughter, Barbara (“Malcolm Shepherd Knowles”, 2003).
Perspective
of Knowles
Sopher (2003) identified four major educational influences on
Knowles: The humanistic adult education movement, the human services movement, the
group dynamic movement and the resource development movement. Knowles’
humanist influence can be seen in his characteristics of adult learning. Knowles believed the focus on adult education was informal.
He saw a distinction between formal education and informal education. Knowles
was quoted to write “Formal programs are those sponsored for the most part by
established education institutions, such as universities, high school, and
trade schools” (as cited in Smith, 2002, para 13); whereas, informal education
is based out of community centers or industries and are more friendly and
flexible.
One complaint Knowles had of
formal education was he felt the administration of universities focused on
becoming more efficient and not providing the most education at the lowest
cost. This concept loses sight of education designed to be for all the
people. Informal education tied more into Knowles meaning of Andragogy
which means the science of helping adults learn (Caruth, 2014).
Knowles’
Contributions
Knowles’ extensive career lead to the publication of
numerous written works, including books, texts, and journal articles. Some of
his publications include: Informal Adult Education
(1950), How to Develop Better Leaders (1955),
The Adult Education Movement in the
United States (1962), Higher Adult
Education in the United States (1969), The
Dynamics of Leadership Series (1962), History
of Adult Education in the United States (1972), Lifelong Learning: A Guide for Teachers and Learners (1975), Self-Directed Learning (1975), The Modern Practice of Adult Education:
Andragogy vs. Pedagogy (1980), Andragogy
in Action (1984), and Using Learning
Contracts (1986). Knowles also co-authored several publications. Perhaps
his most influential book, The Adult
Learner: A Neglected Species was issued in a third edition in 1984
(“Malcolm Knowles”, 2004).
Impact of
Knowles’ Work
Knowles, a tireless pioneer and advocate of adult
education, developed the andragogy as a means of distinguishing the differences
between childhood and adult learners. To Knowles, adult education was based on
these differences and characteristics of the adult learner (Caruth, 2014). His
work was very influential to the cause in the twentieth century. The reach of
his impact can only be briefly summarized in this document. He created the
first comprehensive adult education program at the YMCA in Boston. He founded
the Adult Education Association of the USA. All his contributions directly or
indirectly promote the idea of lifelong learning (Weingand, 1998).
As previously mentioned, Knowles developed the concept of
andragogy. In Greek translation, andragogy means teaching adults. Conversely,
pedagogy means to teach children. The model Knowles created implies adults
learn differently than youth and consequently, need to be taught differently
(Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 2005). Andragogy focuses on hands-on learning,
problem solving, and informal learning formats rather than a structured
curriculum (“Malcolm Knowles”, 2016). Knowles, Holton, and Swanson (2005)
surmised several characteristics of adult learners:
·
Adult learners need to
know why they need to learn before attempting to learn it.
·
Adults are accountable
for their own decision-making.
·
Adults are capable of
self-direction.
·
Life experiences
provide context to learning.
·
Adults have a
readiness to learn what they need to know in order to be effective in real-life
situations.
·
Adults prefer life
centered-learning over subject-centered learning.
Additionally, Knowles formulated guidelines for developing a
competency-based graduate program for training adult educators and human
resources developers (Sopher, 2003). These guidelines were intended to help
with a new graduate program in adult education. Competency based
education has increased in popularity in the last couple of decades.
Implications
The works of both
Dewey and Knowles provide educators a framework to utilize today. Implications
for practice can be drawn from both educators and several implications from
Dewey are reflected by Knowles, strengthening the argument that the
insinuations of each educator are sound.
Though Dewey was active in education many years ago, many of his
viewpoints are practical within adult education today. Experiential learning
has been adopted as a common teaching method within formal education,
especially career and technical paths in which practical experience is a
requirement for workforce entry. Exposing learners to new social interactions
engages the senses and yields an invigorating educational experience. The idea
one can build upon previous knowledge and understand effects of future
experiences is a central idea in adult education.
The work
of Knowles has largely informed our practical work as it is arguably the basis
of adult education by differentiating between pedagogy vs. andragogy. His work
also demonstrated that adult learners learn differently and have different
impetuses for gaining knowledge than children do. Harnessing that information
allows practitioners to better educate adult learners. The idea of andragogy
gave voice to the adult learner.
Both
Dewey and Knowles noted the importance of teaching adults in a learner-centered
environment, in which the teacher acts as a facilitator rather than one who
holds all of the power. Knowles described characteristics of adult learners,
some of which were also mentioned by Dewey, and methods to appeal to this
specific population. For example, if a facilitator can incorporate hands-on
learning and the utilization of problem-solving skills into curriculum (rather
than merely reading or lecturing over a concept), this method will most likely
provide a more enriching learning experience to an adult learner because he or
she can experience the subject, draw inferences upon the experience, and
determine the applicability of the material to their personal agenda.
Table 1. Summary of Adult Educators
John Dewey
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Malcolm Knowles
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Time Period
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1884-1930
|
1950-1986
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Background
|
Born
on October 20, 1859, John Dewey was a prolific philosopher, educator, and
educational experimentalist. Dewey explored and embraced the concept of
furthering adult education before it was en-vogue, and is considered a
pioneer in the field.
|
Born
on August 24, 1913, Malcolm Knowles was an active voice in the development of
accepted practices within adult education. Knowles’ work in the area of
andragogy serves as the foundation for modern adult education
development.
|
Profile
|
Developing
an interest in philosophy early on in his educational career, Dewey went on
to pursue a doctorate in philosophy, and became closely associated with
Thomas Huxley, a fellow humanist. Dewey believed that human kind had an
inherent goodness, and the best way to shape society was to influence the
education of the young. Dewey’s work was squarely focused on the removal of
church practices from higher education, which was a revolutionary notion in
his time.
|
After
completing his bachelor’s degree in 1934, Knowles was drafter to the navy,
and served as an officer for the duration of WWII. After returning from the
war, Knowles receives his graduate degree in 1949, and his doctorate in adult
education in 1960. Knowles served as a professor between 1960-1979.
|
Perspectives
|
Dewey
promoted the development of individual capabilities through the application
of experiential learning. The core tenants of Dewey’s experiential learning
were critical thinking and problem solving.
|
Influencing
factors on Knowles’ view on education were the humanistic adult education
movement, the human services movement, the group dynamic movement, and the
resource development movement. Knowles recognized a clear distinction between
formal and informal education, and these influences had a profound impact on the
development of Knowles’ theories.
|
Contributions
|
Dewey
turned the accepted formal education paradigm on its ear, and has been said
to have been one of the most influential educators of the 20th
century. Dewey helped grow the Teacher’s College of Columbia University,
helped found the Progressive Education Association among other well-known
organizations within the higher education community.
|
Knowles’
extensive experience and career lead him to publish numerous journal articles
and textbooks. These written works have become a vital tool in the adult
educators toolkit.
|
Impact
|
Dewey’s
work shaped the face of higher education that we recognize today. He fostered
the teacher education movement, which is alive and well to this day. His
focus on experiential learning has become a cornerstone of adult education.
|
Knowles’
contributions to the field of adult education served to completely transform
the way in which it was approached and administered. With the development of
andragogy, he firmly established that the development of adult education
mechanisms is a science unto itself, and as such, it should not be viewed as
an off-shoot of traditional higher education programs.
|
Implications
|
Dewey’s
work was far ahead of his time, and his theories of experiential learning and
education development are still in practice to this day.
|
Knowles
lead the charge in the effort to prove that adult education was truly unique
into and of itself. His theory of andragogy has completely altered the way in
which modern educators approach and develop adult education curriculum.
|
References
By, W. S. (1997, Dec 06).
M.S. Knowles, 84, adult education pioneer. The
New York
Times. Retrieved
from: http://www.nytimes.com
Clark, G. H. (1960). Dewey. Philadelphia: Presbyterian and
Reformed.
Caruth, G. D. (2014). Meeting the Needs of Older Students in
Higher Education.
Participatory Educational
Research, 1(2), 21-35. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED552755)
Dupuis, A. M. (1966). Philosophy of education in historical
perspective. Chicago:
Rand
McNally & Co.
Gangel, K. O. &
Benson, W. S. (1983). Christian
education: Its history and
philosophy.
Chicago: Moody Press.
Gouinlock, J. S. (2010).
John Dewey. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved
from:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Dewey
Henschke, J. (1997). In
memoriam: Malcolm S. Knowles. Adult
Learning, 9(2), 2.
John Dewey Biography.
(2014). Retrieved from:
http://www.biography.com/people/john-dewey-9273497
Knoll, M. (2015). John
Dewey as administrator: the inglorious end of the
Laboratory School
in Chicago. Journal of Curriculum Studies,
47(2), 203-252.
Knowles, M. S., Holton,
E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (2005). The
adult learner: The
definitive classic in adult education and
human resource development (6 ed.). Burlington, MA: Elsevier.
Malcolm Knowles. (2016). Biography Reference Bank (Bio Ref Bank).
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles.
(2003). In Contemporary Authors Online.
Retrieved
from:http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/H1000055110/BIC1?u=fairfax_main&xid=506a7a36
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles.
(2004). In Encyclopedia of World Biography (2nd ed,
Vol. 9,
pp. 62-64). Detroit: Gale.
Marcy, M. (2013). The emperors who had no clothes.
Portland, OR: Create Space
Publishing.
Mayer, F. (1960). A history of educational thought.
Columbus, OH: Charles E
Merrill Books.
Meyer, A. E. (1972). An educational history of the Western world
(2nd ed.). New
York:
McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Monk, D. F. (2013). John Dewey and adult learning in museums.
Retrieved from: www.sagepub.com.
Rose, A.D. (1991). Ends or
means: An overview of the history of the
Adult
Education Act. (ERIC
Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, & Vocational
Education). Retrieved from
ERIC database. (ED341875)
Smith, M. K. (2001). John Dewey on education, experience, and
community.
Retrieved from: http://infed.org/mobi/john-dewey-on-education-experience-and-community/
Smith, M.K. (2002). Malcolm Knowles, informal adult education,
self-direction
and andragogy.
Retrieved from: http://infed.org/mobi/malcolm-
knowles-informal- adult-education-self-direction-and-andragogy/
Sopher, M. J. (2003). An historical biography of Malcolm S.
Knowles: The
re-making of an adult educator. Madison, WI, University of Wisconsin.
Thut, I. N. (1957). The story of education: Philosophical and
historical
foundations. New
York: McGraw-Hill Book Co.
Weingland, D. E. (1998).
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles. Training &
Development,
52(2), 11.
Wilds, E. H. (1942). The foundations of modern education:
Historical and
philosophical backgrounds for the
interpretation of present-day educational
issues.
New York: Rinehart and Co.
Does anyone have any recommendations for the formatting on the blogger? It seems there must be a better way than transferring from Word to the blogger and then toggling from the publishing page to the preview to try to correct reference formatting. I changed the right margin on the Word doc to 1.75" and this helped some of the formatting on the final doc, but I still had to go in and correct errors.
ReplyDeleteThanks!
Rose
Rose this looks amazing, thank you!!
ReplyDeleteThank you, Rose, for all your work (and expertise). It looks great!
ReplyDeleteGreat Job Group 4!
ReplyDeleteI've studied the theories of Knowles in previous classes. It was interesting to learn a bit more about the man.
I found the section on Dewey fascinating. Now I want to research him further. I'm curious about your connections of his theories to biblical passages. Did you all make those connections based on your interpretation of the theories and passages or did Dewey make the connection?
Kim
'm curious about your connections of his theories to biblical passages. Did you all make those connections based on your interpretation of the theories and passages or did Dewey make the connection?
Delete--- These are the questions I want to know too!!
Bo
This is an impressive paper. Well done. Dewey talked about the evolution of education, based largely in his earlier studies. Knowles talked about adult education and the ways to best reach an adult audience. To combine these two educators, my question is what are the evolutionary trends in adult education today?
ReplyDeleteMuch in the world has changed since the time of Knowles, let alone the time of Dewey. The world is more connected, leading to a faster pace and a more efficient flow of ideas. This is an important facet of education today that has led to things like this very class being online. I think the work of adult educators today is to connect and engage learners through these improved pathways while still maintaining quality experiences, may of which can be lost through an online setting. Anyone have other thoughts?
Good questions, Joe!
DeleteBo
Very good paper! I found it interesting that we both have done research on Dewey. One of the most interesting things I found with Dewey, was his realization on experimental learning. I loved reading and learning more about this process. I enjoyed reading your information about Knowles and andragogy. Life long learning is very important with all the changes our world experiences.
ReplyDeleteI enjoyed reading this paper. I loved reading and learning more about these two iconic educators. I think anyone that knows anything about education has heard of these two, but the paper went into depth about them and their practices and provided new information to me. I especially liked how it was stated that Dewey did not focus primarily on children education, which many people often confuse. I can personally relate to Knowles' views on informal and formal education especially the view of schools not focusing on giving the best education at the lowest price.
ReplyDeleteCommented on both Group 2 and 3 papers
ReplyDeleteWhat a fantastic paper you have created here! I found that the way you summarized each educator to be quite comprehensive and yet not overly detailed to the point of being too long for the reader to absorb all the information. I found myself pulling out the relevant contributions of each educator to the field of adult education specifically, and appreciate the review of such.
ReplyDeleteI had not realized previously that Dewey was sometimes associated with Children's education; I guess I had always thought of him as an adult educator. I also found the review of Knowles role in the creation of the adrogogy vs. pedagogy to be very important.
Take care,
Alexandra
P.S. You have also created a very nice summary table :-)
What a fantastic paper you have created here! I found that the way you summarized each educator to be quite comprehensive and yet not overly detailed to the point of being too long for the reader to absorb all the information.
ReplyDeleteP.S. You have also created a very nice summary table :-)
--- Totally agree with what you said!
Bo
Rose, David, Jillian, Linda, Nic, and Wayne,
ReplyDeleteWhat a fantastic paper you wrote! I was so excited while I read your paper! Your paper is so precise, yet rich, focused and interesting! Each part of the paper, including you summary table, is well written! It has both “bones and meat”! Your summary table is excellent! It highlighted the most important ideas in each part of your paper!
Your group is the largest group in this class, yet your paper is so cohesive, which is amazing! Great collaboration!
I especially like the followings:
The elements of experiential learning included…
In spite of his rejection of biblical authority, Dewey incorporated many biblical principles into his educational theory….
Sopher (2003) identified four major educational influences on Knowles: The humanistic adult education movement, the human services movement, the group dynamic movement and the resource development movement.
I also like that you listed the publications of these educators, which is informative for readers who are not familiar with their work.
Check the APA format. For example:
Malcolm Shepherd Knowles. (2004). In Encyclopedia of World Biography (2nd ed, Vol. 9, pp. 62-64). Detroit: Gale.
By, W. S. (1997, Dec 06). M.S. Knowles, 84, adult education pioneer. The New York Times. Retrieved from: http://www.nytimes.com
Caruth, G. D. (2014). Meeting the Needs of Older Students in Higher Education.Participatory Educational Research, 1(2), 21-35. Retrieved from ERIC database. (ED552755)
Bo