History of Adult and Community Education- Jones

Adult Education Through the 1960’s

David M. Jones

Ball State University

David Jones	Commented On

Abstract

    Adult education has taken many forms through the history of time. However, the twentieth century ushered in some of the most profound changes ever witnessed within the auspices of higher education. In particular, the 1960’s represented a time of enormous social and political upheaval. The baby boomers were beginning to revolt against the staunch social norms of the day, and the Vietnam War was in full swing. All of these factors combined into a force that would serve to create the community college system, and forever shape the face of higher education practices, policy, and curriculum development.

Adult Education through the 1960’s

Introduction

Adult education is not a new concept; it has been in practice in one form or another for centuries. One theme that has remained constant throughout time: the focus of what is taught during the course of adult education programs has been largely influenced by the customs and accepted practices of surrounding society. The origins of the twentieth-century adult education and the resultant community college movement lay in the Nonconformist revival of the second half of the nineteenth century, when members of the Society of Friends (Quakers) in several British cities established Sunday morning schools to instruct the working-class population in reading, writing and Bible study (Freeman, 2010, p. 483). These courses were some of the first that focused on the educational needs of adults, which is why these first courses were organized on Sundays; during these early times work was not carried out on Sundays.

As time marched on, both the educational needs of adults as well as the customs of society began to shift, and in this vein, I have chosen to investigate adult education from the turn of the twentieth up, culminating in the 1960’s. The 1960’s were a tumultuous time in American history in which many forces of social and political change were extremely active. During this time, the Vietnam conflict, and the associated conscription draft, had begun, which was an extremely unpopular endeavor to many of the liberal constituents that populated the higher education institutions of the day. In addition to an unpopular war taking place, those who opposed the war, societal norms and expectations, and the limitations imposed thereof often organized into massive public displays of protest. This massive social upheaval was fueled by a burning desire to change the status quo in a quest for enlightenment, free and open political communication and debate, and the freedom to choose the course of one’s life outside of conservative social norms. These desires gave rise to the free speech movement, or FSM. This organized movement began in Berkeley during the spring semester of 1965, and was a result of students’ perception that the current modus operandi of higher education institutions represented the very social constraints that they were fighting to tear down. To quote an article from the era, “students have thrown their bodies on the gears of the machine…” (Jewett, 2012, p. 551). The FSM movement consisted of students, and faculty alike, who were enraged of the general sense of ignorance that was prevalent within society concerning the political and social landscape. The FSM movement believed that the current state of mass education elevated the machinery of progress over the freedom to learn. Fueled by this notion, the leaders of the FSM movement heralded the belief that ignorance of current issues enslaved the population, and each and every “student cog” in the machine should assert their “right to know”. A leader of the FSM was captured on record stating “it is ours to demand meaning; we must insist upon meaning” (Jewett, 2012, p. 552).  

The FSM chair envisioned a “free university structure organized by the students themselves and operating alongside official classes would provide both knowledge and meaning. It would allow students to follow their own paths "when we really get 'turned on' by a great idea, a great man, or a great book," pursuing insights wherever they led rather than hewing to academic boundaries or faculty specialties”. The goal of this push was to spark a nationwide revitalization of liberal education that put a true institution of higher learning in the place of Kerr’s knowledge factory (p. 552). This desire to overhaul the hierarchy of education as it was known spawned many innovations in the arena of higher education, which trickled down to the realms of adult education and its associated programs.

Highlights

    Adult education falls outside of the education that is traditionally required by society; the term ‘adult’ being defined as people 18 years of age and older. In many cases, adults historically had little need to further their education beyond high school, as there were a multitude of unskilled jobs available that paid relatively well, and offered excellent job security. According to Nilsson (2014), the 1960’s ushered in a new direction for adult education that focused on vocational education and comprised a large number of education programs and training opportunities (p. 615). During this time period, adult education was largely voluntary, and the contents were of a fairly general nature. The adult education arena was dominated by part-time courses that were designed for participants who were actively employed. It was “conceptualized to include two categories. The first could be called compensatory education to underprivileged groups, in particular the working class, whereas the other category consists of emancipatory movements with the aim to develop class consciousness as a basis for a socialist political movement and culture” (Nilsson, 2014, p. 616). It is important to note that during this time period, the most important process in the ‘adultification’ of vocational education and training was the increasing number of adults in courses that were originally designed for minors. There were very few purpose built courses that were designed from inception to cater to the needs of the adult learner. In a matter of sorts, during this time period, adult education was a knee-jerk response to societal requests. These deficiencies paved the way for the creation of the community college movement, which focused on the needs of the employed adult learner.

    Another interesting development that emerged in the 1960’s was the creation of the community college system that we know today. Beginning in 1955, the Higher Education commission was charged to "make a thorough investigation, study and survey of the problems facing Illinois higher education, public and private, which will be occasioned by the great increase in enrollment expected in the next decade” (Scott, 2008, p. 177). Upon completion of its investigation, the commission issued its recommendations in 1957, which was to “drastically increase enrollments underway and projected for…colleges and universities” (p. 177). The commission gave a great deal of attention to junior college expansion. Such colleges were established to provide vocational and technical programs geared to the training needs of local employers as well as the first two years of a four-year liberal arts curriculum. These public junior were also to provide a means of screening those not able to benefit from college work, “that is to cool off the higher education ambitions of the academically inferior student” (p. 178).    

Influential Factors

    The Vietnam War had a profound impact on adults enrolling in college during the 1960’s, “between 1965 and 1975 the enrollment rate  of college-age men in the United States rose and  then fell abruptly” (Card & Lemieux, 2001, p. 97). This surge in enrollment was attributed to draft-avoidance behavior. Under a policy first introduced in the Korean War, the Selective Service issued college deferments to enrolled men that delayed their eligibility for conscription, which provided a strong incentive to remain in school for men who wanted to avoid the draft. These occurrences left a lasting mark on the educational landscape; higher education is still feeling some of the ramifications of this practice today, which is evident in the archaic and ineffectual polices and rituals that are still in play in many institutions. It should be noted, however, that these policies were put in place in an effort to create order amongst the increasingly disgruntled and outspoken student population of the 1960’s.

    Another interesting implication of the Vietnam War that was felt in the 1960’s, but remained prevalent for decades to follow were the problems encountered by veterans who returned from the war and re-entered society and higher education. These individuals witnessed tragedy and trauma that changed the very make-up of their psyche. Research has shown that the “debilitating long-term effects of service in Vietnam on the quality of life in middle age has been observed among diverse samples of Vietnam veterans, even among our sample of men who are highly educated and relatively well off” (as cited in Grote, Frieze, & Schmidt, 1997, p. 1674). A direct result of these long-term psychological effects have had a profound impact on the policies and mechanisms that have been put in place to govern adult education in that for a given period of time, many of the adults returning to college had served in Vietnam. Even deeper than this, a portion of Vietnam veterans who returned from the war went on to achieve their higher education degrees, and then entered the administration of many colleges and universities; the political and social beliefs resultant from active duty in Vietnam often leeched into policy creation and procedure development.

Implications

    My research over this time period opened my eyes to many of the complexities encountered during the 1960’s in higher education. For the most part, these elements and this decade, go largely unmentioned in the discussions concerning higher education policy development. However, the events that took place in the 1960’s transformed the landscape of higher education, and broke down numerous barriers of social conformity and customs. These changes set the stage for many discussions which questioned social purpose, political implications, and the true right of free speech and free-form education. In addition to these elements, the 1960’s ushered in the era of the community college, which forever changed the landscape of higher education, and still remain a dominant force in the adult higher education sector. For these reasons, we must seek to continually develop curriculum that not only meets the scheduling needs of the adult learner, but curriculum that consistently delivers a high level of academic rigor, workforce skills alignment, and a proper integration of liberal arts concepts.

Works Cited

Card, D., & Lemieux, T. (2001). Going to College to Avoid the Draft: The Unintended Legacy of the     Vietnam War. The American Economic Review, 91(2), 97-102. Retrieved from     http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/2677740 

Freeman, M. (2010). The decline of the adult school movement between the wars. History Of     Education, 39(4), 481-506. doi:10.1080/00467600903502428

Grote, N. K., Frieze, I. H. and Schmidt, L. C. (1997), Political Attitudes and the Vietnam War: A     Study of  College-Educated Men of the Vietnam Generation1. Journal of Applied Social     Psychology, 27: 1673–1693. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1997.tb01619.x

Jewett, A. (2012). The Politics of Knowledge in 1960s America. Social Science History, 36(4),     551-581. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/23361143

Nilsson, A. (2014). The unknown story: vocational education for adults in Sweden 1918–    1968. History Of Education, 43(5), 615-634. doi:10.1080/0046760X.2014.930187

Scott, D. (2008). The Transformation of Higher Education in the 1960s: Master Plans,     Community Colleges, and Emerging Universities. Journal of the Illinois State     Historical Society (1998), 101(2), 177-192. Retrieved from     http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/40204727