History of Adult and Community Education- Spangle

History of Community Education: The Community College Movement in the 1960's
Nicholas Spangle
Ball State University
EDAC 631 Adult and Community Education
Dr. Bo Chang
February 19th, 2017

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Nicholas Spangle
Jillian Saunders, Michelle "Rose" Hobby, Wayne Tozzi
Introduction
The decade of the 1960's was a period of revolution in America. No institution, including education, was safe from the turmoil and upheaval that marked this era, brought on by the rapid departure from the traditions of the 1950's. Events such as the Vietnam War, the Johnson administration’s Great Society, and the tumultuous counterculture played significant roles in shaping the legacy of this decade. Growing attention was being paid to the underprivileged, underserved, and overlooked groups within our society. These groups mostly consisted of African Americans, women, and those in poverty. These issues and events would find their way into higher education when calls for action began being sounded. More specifically, during this time period, community colleges took up these causes, positioning themselves to be at the forefront of combating the concerns of the nation. Community colleges would become almost synonymous with the greater accessibility that the country was crying out for in education. It was due to a confluence of these issues that community colleges saw rapid growth during this decade.
The Vietnam War was one of the most polarizing issues of the time. The groundswell of young Americans in opposition to the draft, and the principle of war, made institutions of higher education their base of operations. Many would use these institutions to stage protests, burn draft cards, and rail against the injustices of the American government. Violence would often accompany these protests as students would clash with police forces (The Sixties, 2014).
The young Americans endeavoring to change society into a more equitable and inclusive nation became known as “hippies”, a counterculture movement that wanted to move away from the rigidity of past generations. The counterculture movement was pervasive in higher education and used these institutions to escape the war itself. According to David Card and Thomas Lemieux, the “Selective Service issued college deferments to enrolled men that delayed their eligibility for conscription” (2001, p. 97). Inadvertently, the Vietnam War funneled men to higher education as a way to flee the draft and it became “an effective means of...avoidance, and that draft avoidance led to the rise in the college enrollment rates” (p. 101). This contributed significantly to the rise in community college enrollment rates.
The counterculture, in conjunction with the Civil Rights Movement, the Women’s Right Movement, and the War on Poverty found refuge on college campuses around the nation. These injustices were being addressed at the state and federal level. The War on Poverty which grew out of the Great Society, led by the Johnson administration, sought to alleviate a class unemployment not seen since the Great Depression. It represented a path forward for those disenfranchised populations to climb the social ladder, and one of the key focuses was education.
As this focus to disenfranchised populations within our society took shape, community colleges “were well positioned to ride the wave of social change” (Dassance, 2011, p.32). Their mission and mandate during the 1960's was one of an open door policy. It was the most “important concept to influence the development of the community college...the belief that all Americans should have access to higher education” (Vaughan, 1985, p. 12). This concept began to address the social and socioeconomic concerns of the time. They desired “entry into higher education of ‘new students’ who came from...the lower socioeconomic segments of society. Prominently among the new students were members of minorities and women” (p. 12). Through legislative advances, social change, and world events, community colleges would become a driving force in educating those groups.
Highlights
The 1960's was characterized by massive social changes. A need arose to analyze the accessibility of key resources and their effect, or lack thereof, on disenfranchised populations within our society, mainly in regards to African Americans and those in poverty. As a result of this examination several monumental pieces of legislation were passed in response that would foster an environment where community colleges could fill the needs of the underserved. Those enrolled in these institutions went from “1 million in 1965 to about 2.2 million by 1970” (Kasper, 2003, p. 15). Indeed, the rapid expansion was astounding with a new community college emerging somewhere in America at a “rate of one a week” (Callan, 1997, p. 102).  This sudden growth of campuses across the nation was in response to a confluence of causes. Baby-Boomers were reaching college age, young Americans were attempting to dodge the draft of the Vietnam War, and legislation was passed which increased the amount of people eligible to receive a higher education.
A key provision that was passed as a response to Johnson’s vision of a “Great Society” was the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963. This legislation intended to boost the construction of new undergraduate facilities, provide better college libraries, create graduate programs, and “would help build 25 to 30 new community colleges every year” (Lyndon B. Johnson: Remarks Upon Signing Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963). This legislation, one of the first in the “Great Society” would be the precursor to the Higher Education Act of 1965.
One monumental piece of legislation to be passed was the Civil Rights Act of 1964. A key measure granted African Americans greater access to public schooling by desegregation. Another important measure within the act was Title VI which stated that someone cannot be discriminated against based on race, color, or national origin from any program that receives Federal financial assistance. This effectively gave underserved African Americans the right to access higher education without fear of discrimination. It proved integral in the fight for civil rights and greater equality in the United States. By granting this access, especially in regards to higher education, these institutions were given a mandate to allow African Americans entrance. This greater accessibility would become a cornerstone of the community college and its mission.
The second groundbreaking piece of legislation, and one of the most important to higher education during the 1960's was the passage of the Higher Education Act of 1965. Whereas Title VI of the Civil Rights Act prohibited all entities receiving governmental financial assistance from barring individuals based on color, the Higher Education Act of 1965 specifically targeted another disenfranchised population, the poor. This act provided access “for more higher education opportunities for lower and middle income families” (McCants, 2003). Title IV of the Higher Education Act opened educational opportunity grant money that gave the poor the ability to enter into higher education using government assistance.
Not all remarkable legislation which drove the rapid rise in community colleges happened on the federal level. Many states during the 1960's passed legislation to create an environment in which community colleges could flourish, providing funding for construction of facilities. States such as Michigan, California, Maryland, New Jersey, Oregon, Washington, Pennsylvania, and many more were all commissioning studies, drafting master plans, and passing legislation that would build toward those statewide community college systems (Cohen, 1999, pp. 8-12).
All of these pieces of legislation during the 1960's created an atmosphere where community colleges thrived. Combined with the rapid social changes and the calls for more open access for those disenfranchised populations to enter higher education, positioned community colleges to become an innovative method for delivering that education.
Influential Factors
The mandate for community colleges and their expansion undergone in the 1960's is a direct reflection of the policies brought forth by the Kennedy administration as the “New Frontier” and later the Johnson administration. Johnson envisioned a “Great Society”, one that was inclusive and open, in which education played a huge component. They recognized the struggle that was taking place in the nation with disenfranchised populations as their own struggle. It was due to this that they were able to effectively pass the Civil Rights Act and begin a War on Poverty. Both of these issues either directly or indirectly affected access for higher education.
One of the most influential proponents of community colleges and its vision during this time period was Edmund J. Gleazer Jr. He became President of the American Association of Junior Colleges in 1958. He used his status to become a tireless spokesperson who contributed more than any other individual to shape the mission of community colleges at the time. Under his leadership during the boom years, these institutions flourished. He advocated for lifelong learning and community-based education which, he believed would spur community change. During his tenure as the president of the AAJC he published prolifically, contributing thousands of speeches and hundreds of articles as well as full books on the subject of community colleges. Gleazer also worked with the Kellogg Foundation to help develop a cohort of community college leadership that would pave the way for its future direction (Vaughan, 1985).
The organization that Gleazer would lead for twenty-eight years was just as influential as the person at the helm. The American Association of Junior Colleges (now the American Association of Community Colleges) was the most prominent organization at the time, leading the charge for greater access to community colleges. The AAJC would become the accrediting body for these institutions, addressing the major issues of the time, serving as a support system for the fledgling institutions, and forging a common identity. The AAJC wanted to keep the conversation as to how community colleges could serve their communities a robust one. The organization also lobbied federal and state legislatures to pass laws allowing for the funding of more community colleges. They would become key players in interacting with the various federal agencies to open up funding. They also advocated philanthropic organizations, such as the Kellogg Foundation, in order to boost funding for educating leadership for the two-year college programs (Luskin, 2011, pp. 13-29)
Implications
The most prominent implication of this time period was the idea that all who seek a quality education should have access to it, regardless of age, color, gender, or socioeconomic status. Community colleges around the nation responded to these efforts and made it their mission statement. Their success in co-opting this idea is clearly seen in the rapid expansion of sites around the country and their increase in enrollment rates. Greater attention was paid to turn previously disenfranchised populations into skilled employees with a quality education. This was seen as a cornerstone of the “Great Society”. Community colleges granting more accessibility to higher education can be considered one of the “most significant contributions...to the nation’s education” (Vaughan, 1985, p. 12). This idea has grown support over the decades to include presidential candidates, such as Bernie Sanders, including tuition-free public colleges and universities in their platforms (On the Issues, n.d.). Former President Obama lobbied for his America’s College Promise which would “make two years of community college free to all responsible students” (America’s College Promise Playbook, p. 1). These ideas expand on the 1960's ideal of open access to higher education and to this day, community colleges are still playing a prominent role.
One can argue that the foundation of community colleges’ mission set forth in the 1960's has been largely achieved. They offer flexible schedules, distance education courses, as well as making themselves as affordable as possible, in conjunction with financial assistance. However, the mission has yet to change as the times irrevocably have. They continue to focus on accessibility, when the true and clear issue inside community colleges is low completion rates. A study conducted found that “60 percent of older first-time community college students, compared with 40 percent of younger first-time students, did not earn any credential or transfer after 6 years” (Calcagno, Crosta, Bailey, Jenkins, 2007, p. 776). Community colleges have opened the door to all, but often those who are trying to attain a degree are not prepared for this educational journey. The missionary zeal with which community colleges took up accessibility in the 1960's needs to be rekindled and refocused on providing underserved students, not just access, but success in their educational goals. The movement of community colleges has stagnated as they have integrated more fully into the formal higher educational system, but it cannot be complacent with inaction. They have provided greater access and it is now time to provide greater success (Dassance, 2011).
AreasAreas
BaSummary
Background
Vietnam War
Counterculture
Great Society
War on Poverty
Open Access to Higher Education
Highlights
Community College Rapid Growth
Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963
Civil Rights Act of 1964
Higher Education Act of 1965
State Level Legislation for Community Colleges
Influential Factors
New Frontier/Great Society
Civil Rights
Edmund J. Gleazer Jr.
American Association of Junior Colleges
Implications
Success in mission for greater accessibility
Need to shift toward success/completion
Need to continue to focus on disaffected populations and how successful they can be

References:

Calcagno, J., Crosta, P., Bailey, T., & Jenkins, D. (2007). Stepping Stones to a Degree: The Impact of Enrollment Pathways and Milestones on Community College Students Outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 48(7), 775-801. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/25704529

Callan, P. (1997). Stewards of Opportunity: America's Public Community Colleges. Daedalus,   126(4), 95-112. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/20027460

Cohen, A. (1999). Governmental Policies Affecting Community Colleges. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED429623.pdf

Dassance, C. R. (2011). The next community college movement?. New Directions For Community Colleges, 2011(156), 31-39. doi:10.1002/cc.464

Department of Education, Office of the Under Secretary. (2016). America’s College Promise Playbook. Washington, D.C.

Hanks, T., Goetzman, G., & Herzog, M. (Producers). (2014, May 29). The Sixties [Television series]. CNN.

Kasper, H. T. (2002). The changing role of community college. Occupational Outlook Quarterly, 46(4), 14.

Luskin, B. J. (2011). Legacy of leadership: Profiles of the Presidents of the American Association of Community Colleges, 1958–2010. Washington, DC: W.K. Kellogg Foundation and American Association of Community Colleges. Retrieved from http://www.aacc.nche.edu/Resources/leadership/Documents/LegacyOfLeadership.pdf

Lyndon B. Johnson: Remarks Upon Signing the Higher Education Facilities Act.
McCants, J. (2003). The Early History of the Higher Education Act of 1965. Council for Opportunity in Education. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from http://www.pellinstitute.org/downloads/trio_clearinghouse-The_Early_History_of_the_HEA_of_1965.pdf
On the Issues: It's Time to Make College Tuition Free and Debt Free
https://berniesanders.com/issues/its-time-to-make-college-tuition-free-and-debt-free/

Vaughan, G.B. (1985). The Community College in America: A Short History. Revised. American Association of Community and Junior Colleges. Washington, D.C. Retrieved from files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED255267.pdf







2 comments:

  1. Nic interesting paper. I did mine on the 1960's as well, and we focused on different aspects of the decade. There really was so much going on in this decade it would be hard to cover it all in 6-8 pages. I did not even touch on the war or counterculture, and just touched on civil rights. Wayne

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  2. Nicholas,

    This is an excellent paper! The paper flows very well. You have captured the major events/legislations in 1960s and how they have impacted the community college. Your Implications are based on what you have reviewed.

    Suggestions:

    1. Tells us the influential educators in this period and how they impacted the field of community education.
    2. Check your APA format. For example:

    his act provided access “for more higher education opportunities for lower and middle income families” (McCants, 2003).

     Check APA about direct citation.

    Calcagno, J., Crosta, P., Bailey, T., & Jenkins, D. (2007). Stepping Stones to a Degree: The Impact of Enrollment Pathways and Milestones on Community College Students Outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 48(7), 775-801. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/25704529

    --- Indented five spaces from the second line. Revise others.
    Check APA. You don’t need to capitalize the first letter of every word in the title.

    Bo

    ReplyDelete