History of Adult and Community Education- Hobby

History of Adult and Community Education in the 1980’s

Michelle Rose Hobby

Ball State University

EDAC-631

Dr. Bo Chang

  

Name:	Commented On:
Michelle Rose Hobby	Mandy Lowe; Jillian Saunders

            The 1980’s were a time of great change in the United States. Ronald Reagan was elected President of the United States. The US dollar inflated immensely, and at one point, the unemployment rate peaked at 9.7% (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2017). The 80’s endured the stock market crash of Black Monday. Technology advanced with the release of IBM’s personal computer (PC), Motorola’s mobile phone, and Microsoft’s Word processor and Windows operating systems. Other notable events in the 1980’s include: the identification of the AIDS virus, appointment of Sandra Day O’Connor as the first female Supreme Court Justice, and the dismantle of the Berlin Wall. In popular culture, we saw the launch of MTV and the Simpsons while listening to the music of Madonna, Prince, hair metal bands, and hip hop/rap (The People History, 2016). The impact of many of the events of the 1980’s resulted in an increased interest in adult education, particularly vocational (CTE) education for adults and lifelong learning to strengthen economies and adult literacy (Hake, 2010).

Highlights

According to Apps (1989), major trends in adult education of the 1980’s included “blurring between higher education and adult education” (discussed later under the social events subheading), education for profit, and information technology usage. Though most colleges and universities are non-profit institutions, more for-profit institutions were formed to offer distance and continuing education. Additionally, popularity in self-improvement videotapes, classes, and books increased immensely. Americans became obsessed with dieting and spent billions of dollars on diet foods and weight-loss classes to the profit of companies such as Weight Watchers (Apps, 1989).

The availability of PC’s, software, CD-ROMs, and on-line access revolutionized adult education. Apps (1989) states, “Anyone with a computer, a modem, and the money to pay the on-line costs has access to almost unlimited information” (p. 283). Institutions began to offer degree programs conducted via a CD ROM and online environment. Other technological advances included the use of videos and teleconferencing as a mean to offer distance education. These technological advances allowed many adult learners to overcome obstacles presented by geography and work and family obligations (Apps, 1989).

Adult illiteracy and vocational education, along with the ties to economics, was a source of important discussion in the 1980’s. In the legislative arena, the 1984 amendment to the Adult Education Act placed emphasis on adult literacy; however, the Reagan administration encouraged volunteer educators rather than appropriating federal funding for the cause (Rose, 1991). The Adult Education Act was reauthorized in 1988, when Congress was said to “discover adult literacy” (p. 26) and appropriated 200 million dollars to fund programs and grants for workplace and English literacy programs. For vocational education, the Carl D. Perkins Act of 1984 was created to amend the Vocational Education Act of 1963 to “strengthen and expand the economic base of the Nation, develop human resources, reduce structural unemployment, increase productivity, and strengthen the Nation's defense capabilities by assisting the States to expand, improve, and update high-quality programs of vocational-technical education, and for other purposes” (GovTrack, n.d., para 1).

Influential Factors

Adult Educators

            Paulo Freire, 1986 recipient of the UNESCO Prize for Education for Peace and former San Paulo Secretary of Education, “constructed his philosophy of liberation pedagogy while conducting a literacy campaign among the impoverished illiterate peasants and urban poor in his native Brazil” in the 1960’s (Ornstein, Levine, Gutek, & Vocke, 2014, p. 127). Freire believed the role of adult education is to encourage attainment of critical conscious through dialogue and reflection so the oppressed can become empowered and take control of their lives (Merriam & Brockett, 2007).

            Jerold Apps is an adult educator, researcher, and author. Apps published numerous books and articles in the 1980’s. “Apps’s research has focused on analyzing continuing education and future direction” (Apps, 1988, p. xix). One of App’s prominent publications of the decade included a new framework of adult education providers. The Department of Education categorized adult education providers into nine areas: four-year colleges or universities, two-year colleges (including community and junior colleges), vocational or trade schools, other schools, private community organizations, governmental organizations, labor and professional organizations, and tutors or private instructors. Apps (1989) noted this does not include any self-directed learning activities or non-course activities and proposed a framework based on the avenues adult learners have to choose educational opportunities. His framework did not include self-directed learning as a separate category because learners can choose to learn something from any of the categories of providers. Apps has continued to make contributions to the field of adult education.  

Programs and Organizations

            In 1981, the Coalition for Literacy was established. Afterwards, the Secretary of Education's Adult Literacy Initiative was also launched. Both groups focused on the use of volunteers to educate individuals in the community, much to the concern of adult educators. The educator’s concerns focused on the fear volunteers were not properly trained and that existing adult basic education programs would be overlooked and ignored (Rose, 1991). Ilsley (1989) describes the long history of volunteers educating adults as mentioned by those revered in the profession such as Jane Addams and John Dewey, but goes on to state:

            With the rise of governmental influence and the formation of coalitions, one is drawn to

            the belief that volunteerism is becoming bureaucratic, technical, and professional. The

            disturbing aspect of this trend is that, in the process, voluntary action may become more

            narrowly focused and less responsive to the needs of the citizenry and of volunteers.

            (1989, pp. 108-109)

Though these groups and coalitions seem to have been created to help increase literacy, literature demonstrates the formation of the groups were also a hot topic of discussion for adult educators.

Main Social Events

            Socially, the baby boomer generation was the largest consumers of adult education of the 1980’s (Rachal, 1989). In 1982, 39% of students enrolled in higher education were 25 years of age or older (Apps, 1989). This influx of adult learners caused higher education institutions to create and pioneer methods to accommodate older students, such as distance learning and weekend courses. A study mentioned by Rachal (1989) noted the average American male would make seven career changes in his life, many requiring the attainment of new skills. Adult education was often geared toward work-related subjects. “When the obtaining or renewing of a license or certificate is added to the other job-related reasons for taking a course, a full 80 percent of American adult education was job-related in 1984” (Rachal, 1989, p. 7). Women were underrepresented in many professions; however, women joining the workforce rose in the 80’s. This led to a 55% majority of all partakers of adult education courses being female (Rachal, 1989).

Implications

            The educational trends of the 1980’s allow adult educators of today to learn a few things. First, technological advances can be used to further educational opportunities. The availability of PC’s and other technology propelled distance education to where it is today. Many adult learners use online distance education as a means to attaining education that would otherwise be impossible. Technological advances also helped institutions meet learner’s needs of the decade.

Something else we can learn from is the creation of educational programs to meet the interests of learners. For example, I previously mentioned creation of businesses such as Weight Watchers to meet the desires of those wanting to lose weight and live a healthier lifestyle. An educator or group who keeps their finger on the pulse of society’s demands can develop programs that appeal to individuals and earn a profit if that is a desired outcome. Also, offering learning activities in desirable and easy-to-use formats is another takeaway from meeting demands of learners.

From Freire, we can learn the importance of continuing to educate and empower marginalized individuals and promote equal educational opportunities for all. We also can realize that critical reflection in the community can lead to action in the pursuit of bettering a community. Apps is an active and contributing member of adult education. Apps, himself, is an excellent example of seeking lifelong learning opportunities as evidenced by his vast number of research publications.

The baby-boomer generation is now entering the age of retirement. While these individuals were gaining education to become part of the workforce in the 1980’s, they are now leaving a void in the workforce. Additionally, as they age, society must be prepared to meet the needs of this specific population. As educational institutions clamored to meet the growing needs of the baby-boomers in the 1980’s, the institutions are now working to educate and transform individuals to meet the needs of society today. Perhaps, looking back at the generations and challenges faced in the past will provide answers regarding how to remedy today’s needs. 

Table 1. Summary of the History of Adult/Community Education

Areas	Summary
Social Background	Rising cost of living and increased unemployment rate in the early 80’s lead to interest in CTE, literacy, and strengthening of the national economy.
Highlights	For-profit institutions and organizations catered to needs of learners to provide educational services. Technological advances revolutionized adult education. 1984 amendment and 1988 reauthorization of the AEA brought renewed interest in adult literacy and basic education. The Perkins Act of 1984 brought funding and attention to vocational education.
Influential Factors	Freire continued to bring focus on educating the oppressed. Apps proposed a new framework for providers of adult education.   Groups and coalitions were formed in response to the need to increase adult literacy. The number of adult learners increased in response to the aging of the baby-boomer generation and vocational and work related needs.
Implications	Educators can learn much from the educators and issues before us to continue and enhance adult education today.

References

Apps, J. W. (1988). Higher education in a learning society. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Apps, J. W. (1989). Providers of adult and continuing education: A framework. In S. B. Merriam

& P. M. Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 275-286).

            San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2017). Databases, tables, and calculators by subject. Retrieved

from: https://data.bls.gov/timeseries/LNU04000000?years_option=all_years&periods_option=specific_periods&periods=Annual+Data

GovTrack. (n.d.). H.R. 4164 (98th): Carl D. Perkins Vocational Education Act. Retrieved from:

            https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/98/hr4164

Hake, B. J. (2010). Rewriting the history of American education: The search for narrative

structures. Retrieved from: https://blackboard.bsu.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-5629102-dt-content-rid 29373604_1/courses/2017SPR_EDAC631S800_CLAS_21523_OL/11%20%20%20Rewriting%20the%20History%20of%20Adult%20Education.pdf

Ilsley, P. J. (1989). The voluntary sector and adult education. In S. B. Merriam & P. M.

            Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 99-111).

            San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Merriam, S. B. & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The profession and practice of adult education: An

            introduction. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Ornstein, A. C., Levine, D. U., Gutek, G. L., & Vocke, D. E. (2014). Foundations of Education,

            (12^th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.

Rachal, J. R. (1989). The social context of adult and continuing education. In S. B. Merriam & P.

M. Cunningham (Eds.), Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp. 3-15).

            San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Rose, A. D. (1991). Ends or means: An overview of the history of the adult education act

(Information Series No. 346). Retrieved from: https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/AdultEd/anniv40/end-mean.pdf

The People History. (2016). 1980s news, events, popular culture and prices. Retrieved from:

            http://www.thepeoplehistory.com/1980s.html